Under European Influence

Tutankhamen


Make your own Cartouche
Tutankhamen
Egypt Games
Mummy Maker
Egypt Map
Travel to Egypt

Next | Cairo | Previous

It was in the summer of 1797 that Napoleon's army landed in Alexandria and advanced to Cairo. Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey, the Mamelouk rulers of Egypt, sent a messenger with a small tribute and asked the French general to leave the country. They had never heard of Napoleon before. The French captured Cairo with little resistance shortly after. Much is to be taken against the French during their three-year occupation, from their mistreatment of Egyptian citizens to their invasion of Al-Azhar mosque. However, one has to acknowledge that it was during their presence that Egypt came out of its long dark age. Champollion the father of Egyptology, deciphered the Ancient Egyptian writings on the famous Rosetta Stone. The French also established the "Institut d'Egypte", built schools and colleges, and wrote "Description d'Egypte", the most comprehensive reference on the country's geography and culture.

In 1799, Napoleon left Egypt after his fleet was destroyed by the British in a battle off the coast of Alexandria (Abu-Qir). Although he realized he will no more be able to sustain his troops in Egypt, he appointed Kléber, one of his generals, as ruler. When Kléber was assassinated by Suleiman Al-Halabi, a Syrian Egyptian, Menou assumed power for a short period, then left with the remaining troops to France in 1801 under British pressure. Although the Ottomans still had some authority over Egypt, the British, eager to assume more control over the country, raided the country in 1807 under the command of general Frazer. A year earlier, a new Pasha had been appointed by the Ottoman Sultan, and had no plans to surrender. His name was Mohamed Ali, and he was soon to become one of the most prominent and controversial characters in Egypt's modern history.

Mohamed Ali was an Albanian officer who spoke no Arabic. He was appointed by the Ottoman Sultan, yet he managed to get the support of the Mamelouks and the Egyptian citizens, and to defeat Frazer and his troops. When tensions rose between the Mamelouks and him, he had no desire to yield. In 1811, he organized a banquet for the Mamelouk leaders, five hundred of them, at Saladin's Citadel in Cairo, in a "gesture of reconciliation". When all the guests were present, the doors of the Citadel were ordered closed, and all the Mamelouks (but one who escaped) were massacred by Mohamed Ali's Turkish and Albanian soldiers. For the first time in centuries, a single person was ruling the country unchallenged.

With Napoleon as his idol, Egypt's new expansionist leader stretched his Empire to include Sudan, Arabia, Syria, and even parts of Greece. Although he never declared secession from the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman Sultan could not tolerate this exercise of power, nor did the British. In the later 1830's, the Ottomans and the British allied against Mohamed Ali and forced him in 1840 to give up all territories but Egypt and Sudan. In return, Mohamed Ali was granted some sort of autonomy, and secured a monarchy or "khedivate" for his successors. In 1848, the ailing ruler surrendered his power to his grandson Abbas, and, a year later, died insane.

Under Mohamed Ali's rule, Cairo prospered both economically and culturally. Not only was the infrastructure of the city rebuilt, but a new city center was also planned according to European standards. This new city center, today occupies the downtown Tahrir Square, Garden City, and Azbakeya. It was constructed over a swampy flood plain stretching between Ramses Square and the Nile by French city planners and engineers. A new mosque, the Mohamed Ali Mosque, was erected within the walls of Saladin's Citadel, and barrages were constructed along the Nile near the city. Cotton was introduced and soon became the country's main crop, thereby boosting the economy. During the six-year reign of Mohamed Ali's grandson, Abbas, the first railway line was constructed between Alexandria and Cairo, soon to be followed by a railroad network covering the Delta and Upper Egypt with Cairo at its center. Much of the hydraulic and transportation infrastructure built during that period is still operating to this day.

Abbas was succeeded by his uncle Said (1854-1863) then by another grandson of Mohamed Ali, Ismail. The new Khedive led a notoriously extravagant lifestyle which cost Egypt an enormous debt, and later cost him his throne. It was Ismail who ordered the construction of the Suez Canal, and commissioned the composition of Aida by Verdi. Lavish buildings and hotels were raised in the Capital's downtown area, an Opera House was built, a new road was constructed between Cairo and the Canal, and Royalty from around the world were invited to the inauguration ceremony in 1867. Burdened by the debts, Egypt could not honor its commitments anymore, and Ismail was forced to abdicate in 1879. He was succeeded by Tawfik who was too weak to control the situation. With little choice in hand, Tawfik allowed too much foreign influence into the country, which eventually led to an uprising within the army. Commanded by an Egyptian officer, Ahmad Orabi, soldiers, and citizens marched in 1881 to the Khedive Palace in Abdin and requested governmental reform. In a smart move, the Khedive appointed Orabi as Minister of War then sought the help of the British to regain control. In 1882, the British bombarded Alexandria and defeated Orabi at El-Tel El-Kabir 50 kilometers east of Cairo to start a 70 year occupation.

Between 1883 and 1907, Egypt was effectively ruled by the British Consul, Lord Cromer, a diplomat highly respected by the British and despised by the Egyptians. During Lord Cromer's tenure, the British and the elite enjoyed the introduction of electricity to Cairo in 1889, and the building of a new suburb, Heliopolis (not to be confused with the Ancient Egyptian city of Heliopolis). Meanwhile, a sense of nationalism grew among ordinary citizens. Some were fortunate enough to receive a decent education, such as Mostafa Kamel. The French-educated lawyer founded the Nationalist Party in 1905 in an effort to oppose the continued British influence, but died shortly after at a young age.

Another prominent leader, Saad Zaghloul, emerged on the political scene shortly after the end of WWI, when Britain declared Egypt as a British Protectorate. Saad, who became shortly after Egypt's prime minister, demanded the immediate withdrawal of British troops from Egypt. In response, the British exiled him and his followers to Malta, an act that spurred an unprecedented anger among Egyptian citizens in modern history. Thousands of Egyptians poured into the streets of Cairo, demanding the return of Saad and his friends. Moslem and Christian leaders carried "crescent and cross" banners in solidarity, and women who have always "stayed at home" joined the angry crowd. The British yielded, and Saad returned to form back the Wafd (Delegation) Party and continue his struggle toward independence.

In 1922, the British declared Egypt as a sovereign country with Fouad I of the Mohamed Ali Dynasty as its King. They did not, however, withdraw their army from Egypt, which left the situation de facto unchanged. In 1936, another treaty was signed between Mostafa El Nahas, the Wafd Party leader, and the British which limited Britain's intervention in Egypt's affairs, but it was no more than ink on paper. Nine years later, the Arab League was founded with its headquarters in the center of Cairo, and a sense of Arab nationalism grew among ordinary citizens. In 1946, the British troops had to withdraw from Cairo facing strikes and demonstrations by trade unions. The hostility toward the occupiers grew after the 1948 Arab-Israeli war and the founding of the state of Israel, which was supported by the British. On January 26, 1952, Cairo was set on fire by an angry crowd, a precursor to the events to follow that same year.